Sport Performance Enhancing Substances
From AODWiki
Drugs have been used to enhance performance in sports and athletic competition since the beginning of recorded history. There are many examples of drug use in ancient history. In Norse mythology, the Berserkers used bufotenin for stimulating effects while Cola was being used by the West Africans in running competitions. Hallucinogenic mushrooms and sesame seeds where also used by the ancient Greeks to enhance performance while Coca leaves where used to increase endurance by the South American Indians. (Mottram, 1996)
During the 19th century, performance enhancing drugs used among athletes became the ordinary. The follow are four basic types of performance enhancing drugs, but it should be noted that many more exist.
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Anabolic Steroids
INTRO
Sports aren�t what they used to be for high school students. What once were fun and competitive games, have now turned into year round full time commitments. Students are training harder than ever to get a college scholarship or to keep their starting spot on the team. Unfortunately, because of the ultra competitive nature of high school sports these days, especially in football, society is seeing teenagers experimenting with steroids to gain that extra edge that will put them over the top. The �drugs are generally obtained on the black market, most users take them without a doctor's supervision or advice and without knowing what is in them� 5 which creates a dangerous situation. The harm and effects of steroids on teenage athletes from steroids are simple and can be easily avoided.
CAUSES
There is no doubt that steroids are used in high school sports, and there are many causes for that. First of all, many professional athletes that teenagers look up to are being caught or admitting taking steroids. The �desire of abusers is to change their appearance and performance�6. In a Youth Risk Behavior survey of 16,262 kids, they reported that �331 of male adolescents and 154 of female adolescents have experimented with steroids�1 at least one time. Even high school coaches and trainers contribute to these numbers as they are known to encourage steroid use in their players. High school athletes get away with this because there little testing going on in US high schools. �New Jersey was the first state to test� last year and �Texas and Florida will conduct mandatory tests of a percentage of student athletes of both sexes for steroids�7 this year.
SIDE EFFECTS
Taking anabolic steroids has many side effects that come with the muscle students gain. While it does promote muscle mass and the ability to work out longer and harder it also creates �mood swings, acne, physical changes, and sudden, unexplained aggressive behavior.�2 Additionally men lose hair, develop breasts, and will notice shrinkage in their testacies while women will grow facial hair, notice a deepening in their voices, and irregular menstruation. The �mental health side effects associated with anabolic steroid use also includes psychosis, mania, hypomania, schizophrenia, irritability, hostility, confusion, and forgetfulness.�3
SUICIDE RISK
Not only do steroids change the body�s chemistry, but they can actually kill you as well. �Suicidal behavior in athletes may be related to steroid induced psychotic depression�1. While it is not common for someone to die from overdosing, people using steroids double their rate of suicide and if taking more than 30 mg on a regular basis can quadruple the likelihood of suicide.4 Teenagers are at even higher risk because it is widely believed in society they are much more likely to be emotionally unstable to begin with during the stages of puberty.
PREVENTION
The steroid problem in America is becoming more serious and people are starting to realize the effects the can have. Because of the negative aspects they carry governments have taken steps of prevention. �Concern about youth substance abuse was a key factor in the 1990 anabolic steroid control act which banned non prescription use of steroids in the United States�1 Additionally the DEA is targeting Internet pharmacies shutting down more than 4,600 Internet pharmacy sites�8. This strategy is more common than going after users or street dealers. Professional sports leagues are cracking down and implementing tougher testing and handing out tougher penalties, such as Major League Baseball officially banning steroids in the rule books. Some high schools administer their own tests and require athletes to sign agreements not to use steroids. The effort to prevent steroid use has become an important issue in America.
History
Early researchers where not attempting to improve athletic performance, they where searching for the fountain of youth! In 1989 Dr. Brown-Sequard developed an extract derived from dog testes. After injecting himself with the concoction, he felt a rejuvenating effect, particularly in sexual performance. (www.mja.com)
Many years after, researchers realized these new "anabolic steroids" had potential for use in sports. One of the most prominent steroid researchers of the 1950s was Dr. John Ziegler. Ziegler heard through the grapevine that soviet athletes where using steroid derivatives to boost their performance. (anabolic_bible.org) (steroid.com)
Ethical Issues in Sports
The use of anabolic steroids in sports goes against all views of good ethics for sport. Sport is founded on the shared values of good health and creating fair competition. The only reason for using anabolic steroids in sports is to gain an advantage on the competition that is unfair. Unfair competition is not the intent of sport. People participate in sports to better their health. Injecting drugs into the body in amounts well over the recommended dosage is no way to enhance health. This problem in ethics is argued to result from many issues like pressure from the media to win, an athlete�s desire to be the best, and the huge financial return from governments and sponsors. (Mottram, 1996)
Physiological Effects
One of the most disputed areas concerning anabolic steroids is the issue of physiological effects. For bodybuilders, the desired effect is to increase muscle size and strength. Individual using anabolic steroids will gain muscular bodyweight faster and to a greater extent than one who is nonuser. Besides increasing muscle size and strength, anabolic steroids have many other effects.
Studies consistently show that steroids increase the retention rate of important materials such as nitrogen, and potassium. With a positive nitrogen balance, the body is able to use consumed protein easier and increases the rate of nitrogen retention; two processes necessary for muscle tissue synthesis. (Yesalis, 1993)
Another physiological benefic of steroids is their role in counteracting catabolic hormones. Anabolic hormones cause muscles to use amino acids to form protein to build muscles. Catabolic hormones do the opposite, causing protein to be stripped from muscles and into the blood. (Yesalis, 1993) (Embleton and Thorne, 1998)
Steroids are also linked to an increase in red blood cells and therefore increasing the body�s oxygen carrying limit. The kidney has an increase in the production of erythropoietin, a hormone that causes bone marrow to increase cell production. (Embleton and Thorne, 1998)
Physiological Side Effects
Steroids place an enormous load on one organ in particular, the liver. The main source of the increased work load comes with every pass through the liver that the hormones undergo. As the liver tries to flush the body of the elevated levels of hormones, the enzyme levels in the body are altered. As the liver is forced to work much harder than it would in the absence of steroids, the liver will simply be overworked and become susceptible to disease and cancer. (Embleton and Thorne, 1998)
One of the most unpleasant and potentially serious side effects of anabolic steroid use is a condition known as gynecomastia. In some males, excessive amounts of testosterone are converted to estrogen. The male nipple region contains estrogen receptors so the individual�s nipples may begin to swell. (Yesalis, 1993)
Acne is another side effect that almost all steroid users experience. The exact cause of steroid-induced acne is not fully understood. It may be attributed to the increase in the secretion of oils from pores, creating an ideal area for bacteria growth. (Yesalis, 1993)
Recovery
After periods of Anabolic Steroid use, the ability to conceive is dramatically altered. A 34 year old bodybuilder was referred to semen analysis after two years of unsuccessful reproduction. In this same case, the man was once again able to produce sperm six months after ending steroid use and undergoing hormone therapy. The first semen analysis concluded here was a complete lack of sperm. After six months of hormone therapy, the semen count was approaching normal. "In conclusion, we demonstrated a recovery of spermatogenic process in this male who had used AASs, and ultrastructural semen analysis clearly demonstrated a sperm quality ensuring natural fertility, which was achieved after therapy with gonadotropins" (Fertility Weekly, 2007).
References
1. Miller, K.E., Barnes, G.M., Sabo, D.F., Melnick, M.J., & Farrell, M.P. (2002). Anabolic-Androgenic steroid use and other adolescent problem behaviors: Rethinking the male athlete assumption. Sociological Perspectives, 45, 467-489.
2. Kopkowski, Cynthia. (2007, March). Home Field Disadvantages. NEA Today, 23.
3. Kindlundh, A.M.S., Isacson, D.G.L., Berglund, Ll, & Nyberg, F. (1999). Factors associated with adolescent use of doping agents: anabolic-androgenic steroids. Addiction, 94, 543-553.
4. Steroids more than double suicides. (2006, August 10). . Pulse, p. 1.
5. Altman, L.K. (1988, November 20). Medical experts say steroids risky, but all hazards may still be unknown. St. Petersburg Times, pg. 11.C. 6. Volkow, Nora D.(2007, December 3). Research Report Series - Anabolic Steroid Abuse. NIDA.. www.steroidabuse.gov
7. Barbra, P. (2007, September 3). States test student athletes to curb steroids. Rueters , http://www.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idUSN2436046320070903
8. Leusner, J & Gutierrez, P.R. (2007, February 28). Web sellers bring steroids out of the shadows. Knight Ridder Tribune News Service, pg. 1.
Mottram, David. Drugs in Sports. London: E. & F.N. Spon, 1996
Yesalis, Charles. Anabolic Steroids in Sport and Exercise. Champaign, IL : Human Kinetics Publishers, 1993
Baccetti, B."Recovery after Use of Androgenic Anabolic Steroids". Fertility Weekly, 5/14/2007, p4-4, 3/4p
Embleton, Phil and Thorne, Gerard. Anabolic Primer. Mississauga, ON: MuscleMag International, 1998
http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/177_11_021202/cus10559_fm.html
http://www.anabolic-bible.org/ShowPage.aspx?callpage=Anabolic_History
CREATINE
History
Manufacturers of the creatine products claim it “is a safe and legal alternative to steroids that build muscle mass, reduce muscle fatigue, and improve exercise performance” 1. Creatine was made popular following the 1992 Olympics when gold medal winners Linford Christie and Sally Gunnell reported their use of creatine was the key to their training and their success 1. Creatine supplementation also gained popularity among the general public when National Football League’s John Elway and Major League Baseball’s Mark McGwire revealed their creatine supplementation to the public. 1.
Effects
Creatine does not usually show effective results with just one use 1. Creatine is most effective when you are doing multiple repetitions of an exercise 1. Most studies show creatine is most effective with subjects during weight training activities. 1.
Creatine use among weightlifters is proven to reduce muscle fatigue and allow the weightlifter to work out longer and harder. Studies have shown that using creatine can lead to increases in body size 1. It is understood that the increase in body size is more than likely due to water retention 1.
Prevalence
It is unclear the effect on people under the age of 18 due to the lack of experimentation and the sudden emergence of the new supplement. It has been advised that anyone under the age of 18 should reframe from using creatine 2. However, “despite current recommendations against the use in adolescents less than 18 years old, creatine is being used by middle school and high school athletes at all grade levels. The prevalence in grades 11 and 12 approaches levels reported among collegiate athletes” 2. Some high school athletes still fear the health side effects and, therefore abstain from creatine supplementation. Heightened performance (74.2%) and improved appearance (61.3%) were cited as the most common reasons for using creatine; non-users reported safety concerns most often (45.7%) as their reason for not using the supplement 2.
Ethical Issues
Although creatine is claimed to be a safe alternative to steroids and other performance enhancing drugs, there are those who believe consuming any supplement to improve exercise or performance is unethical and should be considered doping just as steroid use 1.
Side Effects
The most commonly reported side effects include muscle cramping and pulls 1. Effects on the kidneys have proven non-detrimental. According to an article by Poortmans and Francaux it was concluded that based on a study of participants who used creatine for 10 months to 5 years, there was no detrimental effects on the kidneys 1. Side effects from long term use have not yet been thoroughly studied so athletes should be aware of potential risk of dehydration 1. The biggest problem with nutritional supplements like creatine, is that they are not monitored or regulated by the FDA, so supplements are possible to contain harmful ingredients including arsenic 1.
Reference
1. Rawson, E. S., & Clarkson, P. M. (2000). Creatine Supplementation: The Athlete's Friend or Foe. International SportMed Journal, Vol. 1 (Issue 1), p1, 4p.
2. Metzl, J D., Small, E., Levine, S. R., & Gershel, J. C. (2001 August). Creatine use among young athletes. Pediatrics, Part 1 of 2, Vol. 108 (Issue 2). P421-425
